Transmission of Buddhism
Chinese Buddhism on the Silk Roads
Arrival of Buddhism in China
It is widely believed that Buddhism arrived in China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). As the Chinese Empire expanded into Central Asia during the 1st century BCE, China encountered Buddhism through the movement of traders and Buddhist missionaries along the Silk Road.
Talisman of the Polestar
This mid-10th century painting from Dunhuang depicts two celestial figures above an inscription. On the left is the spirit of the Pole Star, portrayed as a woman holding a brush and paper, signifying information. Next to her is Ketu, a figure of Vedic (ancient Indian) astrology.
Underneath the painting is talismanic formulae and a Chinese inscription in red, traditionally signifying good luck. The inscription reads ‘Whoever wears in his girdle this talisman, which is a dharani talisman, will obtain magic power and will have his sins remitted during a thousand kalpas. And of the Ten Quarters all the Buddhas shall appear before his eyes. Abroad in the world he shall everywhere encounter good fortune and profit. Throughout his whole life he shall enjoy other men’s respect and esteem’. The donor dedicates the painting to Ketu and ‘the star that is genius of the northern quarter’.
The painting is an example of the coexistence and intermixing of Chinese astrological beliefs, Daoism and Buddhism after the latter had arrived in China. In the inscription, the painting is referred to as a talisman or dharani, an object that offers good luck or protective powers. Talismans were used by both Daoists and Buddhists alike.
The Han emperor Mingdi (r. 57/58 to 75/76 CE) is said to have been a devotee of both Buddhism and Daoism, and to have sent emissaries to India in search of Buddhist texts.
The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Roads toward China accelerated in the 2nd century CE. This was thanks to the expansion of the Kushan Empire into Central Asia, and the activity of its Buddhist missionaries.
One factor in the successful adoption of Buddhism in China is that Buddhist monks borrowed concepts from Daoism in order to share their teachings. Daoism, an ancient Chinese philosophical and religious belief system, overall describes the order and harmony of the universe. The two traditions share some similarities, and over time, they came to influence each other, as well as influencing Chinese culture. A painting from Dunhuang dating back to the 8th or 9th centuries shows how Chinese astrological beliefs, Daoism and Buddhism coexisted.
Development of Chinese Buddhism
From the mid-1st century CE onwards, Buddhist missionaries were at work in China, translating Buddhist Theravada texts into Chinese. Towards the end of this century, the first translations of Mahayana texts into Chinese were made under the Kushan translator Lokashema. From the 5th century, the Kuchean monk Kumarajiva translated many Mahayana sutras that are still used to this day, such as the Lotus Sutra. By the 8th century, a variety of different approaches to Buddhist practice had developed in China. These include the ‘pure land’ practice of visualising Buddhas and reciting their names, the meditation practice known as Chan (and later in Japan, Zen), and tantric practices which include the use of mantras and mudras.
Illustrated Lotus Sutra
The Lotus Sutra (Saddharma Pundarika Sutra in Sanskrit) is one of the most influential texts in Mahayana Buddhism. It was created sometime between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, and was first translated into Chinese in the 3rd century CE. The main message of the Lotus Sutra is that all living beings can attain Buddhahood and reach nirvana. This message opens up the Buddhist path to all, and had not been established in any sutra before.
This illustrated booklet is a copy of Chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra, or the Avalokitesvarasutra. It focusses on the bodhisattva (Buddhist deity) known as Avalokitesvara, who embodies the quality of compassion. He is usually portrayed helping human beings in their time of need, and this sutra depicts him rescuing people from various dangers, such as drowning or fires. In China, this bodhisattva is known as Guanyin, and takes a female form.
By the 9th and 10th-century Chapter 25 was commonly copied as a separate text, often in small booklets such as this one. Each page of this copy is illustrated and coloured with vibrant red pigment. It is one of thousands of copies of the Lotus Sutra found in the Mogao caves at Dunhuang, China.
Chinese Buddhism on the Silk Roads
Water and moon Avalokitesvara
This accomplished mid-10th century painting on silk shows Avalokitesvara in a popular Chinese form, the so-called Water and Moon Guanyin.
Avalokitesvara, known in Chinese Buddhism as Guanyin, is a bodhisattva who embodies compassion. The ‘water moon’ manifestation usually depicts Guanyin in a relaxed pose, encircled by a full moon, contemplating its reflection in water. It is believed that this represents the deity in his ‘pure land’ or paradise.
Note the elaborate canopy above him, below which can be seen the king and two attendants on a small cloud. At the bottom of the painting is an altar, next to which is a figure identified as the painting’s donor. The iconography is clearly Chinese, indicated by the bamboo, which is not found around Dunhuang.
From the Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE) onwards, Buddhism flourished as the state religion, and continued to thrive in the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). This period of Buddhism’s greatest success in China was also the period when China’s control over Central Asia was at its strongest. During this period, Chinese Buddhist literature and art appeared in Central Asia, along the Northern Silk Road, as far westward as the oasis state of Kucha.
Centres for Buddhist practice, such as Buddhist temples and cave complexes, were built along the Silk Roads. One of the strongest reflections of Chinese Buddhism was found at the monastic cave complex at Dunhuang, where a huge cache of Chinese Buddhist paintings, objects and manuscripts was discovered. The Buddhist sutras found there are mostly Mahayana and largely date from the period of the Tang dynasty, although the earliest dated scroll is from the 5th century CE and the latest from the late 10th century.
