Buddhism on the ground
Buddhist religious life
Throughout the 1st millennium CE, Dunhuang was a hub of Buddhist activity. The Mogao Caves and the objects found there tell us a lot about the monastic life and religious practice that took place there.
Monastic life
In its heyday, there were at least seventeen Buddhist monasteries and nunneries in Dunhuang. The largest held up to 40 monks and 60 nuns, as well as resident novices. Monasteries were governed by the rules outlined in the Vinaya, the code of conduct for monks and nuns. One of these rules deemed that the minimum age for novices joining a monastery was age 12. This letter from 938 CE however shows that this rule was not strictly enforced. Written by the ruler of Dunhuang Cao Yijin, it concerns the request of a local couple for their 11-year-old daughter to become a novice. As this was a secular law as well, Cao Yijin gives his approval at the end of the letter.
Letter on 11-year-old becoming a nun
Buddhist Monasteries are governed by a set of rules outlined in a scripture called the Vinaya, the code of conduct for monks and nuns. One of these rules deems that the minimum age for novices joining a monastery was age 12. This rule however was not strictly enforced.
This is a letter dated 938 CE from Cao Yijin, the ruler of Dunhuang. It concerns the request of a local couple for their daughter, Shenglian, aged 11, to become a novice. The Governor has granted permission, made his mark at the end and added three red seals. A minimum age for novices was also enshrined in secular law, hence the need for Shenglian’s parents to seek permission from the ruler of Dunhuang.
To survive, Buddhist monasteries traditionally relied on donations of food, money, clothes and shelter from the lay community. In exchange, Buddhist laypeople could benefit from Buddhist teachings. This act generates merit for the donors and helps fund the monasteries. This tradition originated when the Buddha and Sangha travelled northern India and is one reason the Buddha is often pictured with a ‘begging bowl’.
Buddha with begging bowl
This 9th-century painting, embellished with red pigment, depicts the Buddha seated on a lotus holding an alms-bowl. It was discovered in Cave 17 of the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang.
Buddhist art often depicts the Buddha with an alms or ‘begging’ bowl. The importance of this object traces back to a mixture of legend and history. During the Buddha’s time travelling Northern India with the Sangha giving teachings, they would collect alms, relying on the lay community to feed them. This is also how monasteries traditionally operated after the Buddha’s death. The lay community donated food, money, clothes and shelter, and in return, they could receive teachings from the monastery, and generate karmic merit.
A number of Buddhist legends reference the begging bowl, and one of these refers to the Buddha’s time meditating under the Bodhi tree before reaching enlightenment. It is said that he was offered a bowl of rice, and realised that he needed to eat enough to sustain him on the path to enlightenment. After becoming enlightened, he discarded the rest of the rice. The bowl therefore symbolises the ‘middle path’ between indulgence and deprivation.
Buddhist practice
Meditation forms the backbone of Buddhist practice. It is an ongoing process of spiritual transformation training the mind and body. It strengthens the mind, builds focus and provides a sense of inner peace. The ultimate goal of Buddhist meditation is to cultivate the wisdom and awareness needed for reaching enlightenment. Depending on which form of Buddhism you practice, this could take many lifetimes.
Meditation practice involves shifting from an outward looking mindset to an inward looking one. It also involves developing the qualities of Samatha and Vipassana – ‘calm’ and ‘insight’. These qualities need to be in balance, and certain meditations focus on nurturing one of these at a time. Practice can take many forms, but one of the most common meditations is anapanasati, the ‘mindfulness of breathing.’ This involves sitting quietly and focussing on the movement of breath in and out of the body. When your mind begins to wander and you start to become restless, you simply return your attention to breathing. This simple act builds concentration.
Altar diagram for recitation ritual
This 10th century diagram illustrates how to prepare an altar for the recitation of the Usnisa Vijaya Dharani. A dharani is an incantation used in Buddhist rituals that offers powers of protection. The Usnisa Vijaya Dharani is said to help purify one of their bad karma, extend their life, and prevent them from rebirth into one of the lower realms. The diagram was discovered in Mogao Cave 17 in Dunhuang, and indicates how these caves may have been used for Buddhist practice.
In the diagram, an image of the Buddha is placed at the centre, surrounded by lamps, vases, and circular bowls for incense and water. As noted in the bottom of the diagram, the officiating Tantrist would be seated at the south side of the altar with an incense burner behind him. There are also images of Bhaisajyaraja and Bhaisajyasamudgata (bodhisattvas of healing), together with the bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta.
Imagery
Imagery plays an important part in meditative practice and can be an object of focus. Vajrayana Buddhists use imagery for a technique called ‘visualisation’.
By singularly focussing on an image of the Buddha or a Buddhist deity, the Buddhist works to internalise that image, and develop the same qualities that the deity possesses.
More generally, images of the Buddha and of Bodhisattvas are used in meditation as objects of devotion. One would kneel in front of the image, present offerings and meditate. This 10th-century diagram shows you how to prepare an altar for the recitation of the Usnisa-Vijaya Dharani. It shows offerings and containers of water arranged around the central Buddha image.
Recitation
Mahapratisara dharani
This elaborate Chinese woodblock print depicts the bodhisattva Mahapratisara surrounded by a dharani in Sanskrit. A dharani is an amulet, an incantation that when written or read aloud is said to offer powers of protection. These would be recited during Buddhist meditative practice.
Mahapratisara is believed to be the personification of a dharani as a deity, and takes the form of an eight-armed protective bodhisattva. She is also known as ‘the great amulet’ or ‘great queen of spells’, and first emerged around the 8th century. Her protective powers can be invoked through the recitation of the dharani.
Another key aspect of Buddhist practice is the act of reciting or chanting. Chanting can clear the mind in preparation for meditation and remind one of the Buddha’s qualities and teachings. It can be a communal act, and it can help establish a connection with the Buddha and the Buddhist path.
In Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhists may begin practice by reciting and ‘taking refuge’ in the Three Treasures: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. The act of taking refuge means to commit unconditionally to these three aspects of Buddhism.
Another form of recitation is the dharani. A dharani is an incantation that, when recited or written down, is said to offer protection from dangers. This woodblock print features the bodhisattva Mahapratisara in the centre surrounded by a dharani in Sanskrit.
Vajrayana practice
Ritual implement
This object was discovered in Cave 17 of the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang. Its purpose is unknown, but it is believed to have been used by Vajrayana Buddhists performing tantric rituals.
On the octagonal base is a drawing of the tantric deity Vajrasattva, who is associated with purification. Purification is an important part of initiation for students of Vajrayana Buddhism. The object therefore may have been used in an ‘empowerment’ ritual, one of the requirements needed before a student is allowed to begin performing Vajrayana practice.
Vajrayana practice includes a number of ritual techniques, such as the repetition of mantras, the use of mudras, visualisation and yoga. Performance of these rituals also includes the use of talismans and ritual objects. It is possible that this implement is a Tibetan tsakli, which may have been placed on a shrine. Tsakli are miniature paintings, sometimes mounted on sticks, which depict deities and offer protection.
Vajrayana Buddhists draw from a broader set of Buddhist practices, performing tantric rituals. These include the repetition of mantras (sacred phrases), mudras (sacred hand gestures), visualisation and yoga. Performance of these rituals also includes the use of talismans and ritual objects. Some common ritual objects include malas (prayer beads), prayer wheels and the dorje or vajra, symbolising the ‘thunderbolt’ of enlightenment. The purpose of this object found in Dunhuang is unknown, but it is thought to be a ritual implement or Tibetan tsakli. These are miniature paintings, sometimes mounted on sticks, which depict deities and can offer protection.
